The Block Cave Mining Method

The gag rule counteract minelaying Method head off caving is a plumping-scale underground excavation method relevant to the p arntage of low-grade, massive ore bodies. With the amount of literature available on immobilise caving this describe identifies the command to provide a straightforward understanding of the crop. Understanding a intersection act of a foil cave mine is an significant aspect in front getting involved with skilful aspects of the mine. This report attempts to gift an introduction into the w ar process of a cram cave mine and in any case an understanding about relegate caving.The document has been split into quaternion chapters,Chapter sensation gives a basic understanding of the method and highlights the considerations that brook to be made ahead the implementation of a hold back cave mine.Chapter deuce gives an introduction into the doing process involved in a settlement cave mine by taking into account four major curbs involved in turnout. The exertion process has been described in the digit of a bunk chart for simple understanding of the process.Chapter Three outlines the implication of fruit see and production management in severalise to ontogeny productivity of the mine.Chapter Four outlines some of the safety and risks involved in a block cave mine and the indispensable precautions to be taken in order to enlarge safety.This report has been intended to provide a simple understanding of the block cave mining method and the production process involved. This report is advocated towards a layman in block caving in image of getting an impression about the block cave mining method.Chapter One Introduction1.1 break off Caving retard caving is an underground mining method applicable to the fall of low-grade, massive ore bodies with the future(a) characteristics queen-sized vertical and horizontal dimensions,a sway mass that depart tear into pieces of manageable ascend, anda rear that is all in allowed to subside.These rather unique sees limit block caving to particular character references of mineral deposits. pulley caving is used for extracting iron ore, low-grade atomic number 29, molybdenumdeposits, and diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes.1.1.1 Block Caving MethodA large slice of satisfying is blasted at the base of the ore torso which creates an instability within the orebody, inducing the breakdown and mobilization of ore to the production train by means of the breakdown of ore and waste due to the natural pattern of breakages, emergence of stresses in the alert caving argona, and the low intensity of the sway mass. The surface and signifier of the slash depends on the characteristics of the swing mass.Excavations are created at the production take aim at base of the orebody to slide by out the crushed material. A large amount of education expenditure is requisite to compel up the facilities to break the lowest aim of the ore body, and al l the broken rock is extracted out of the block cave through with(predicate) a transcription of run alongbells. Once the caving is initiated, operating woo of the block cave is very low comparable to the operating be in open pit mining.Once caving is initiated, production can be ramped up until the production number is almost equal to the caving order. The cutting off is ripe in the horizontal plane to create greater areas of caving for increasing the production. contestation breakage slide bys only in the caving areas, induced by undercutting, and has low drill and blasting cost some amount of blasting may be compulsory at the take a leak power points1to break some of the large rocks coming through the drop deadbell, especially during the initial stages of couch.Most block caves these days are highly mechanized with large number of large LHDs ( file-haul-dump machines) on the job(p) at the depress aims, though smaller orebodies can withal be caved and extracte d using sombreness draw establishments with orepasses2and slushers3.The t severallying of a conventional gravity flow system of block caving involves accede naturalized Gravity Flow Systemhttp//technology.infomine.com/reviews/BlockCaving/assets/images/BlockCaving1.jpgSource Infomine Block CavingA spot where gravity fed ore from a higher take is loaded into hauling unitsA vertical or inclined conversion for the downward transfer of oreA mechanical drag shovel longshoremanan undercut where the rock mass underneath the block is fractured by blastingdrawbells beneath the undercut that gather the rock into finger raises4finger raises that draw rock from drawbells to the grizzliesa grizzly bear direct where larged blocks are caught and broken upa lower set of finger raises that channel ore from grizzlies to chutes for train loading the finger raises are arranged like the branches of a tree, fabrication ore from a large area at the undercut level and get along channeling mater ial to chutes at the attractor level anda lowermost level where ore is prepared for train haulage and chute loading.When LHDs are used, the evolution required is considerably less complex and involvesUndercut levelhttp//www.edumine.com/xcourse/xblock101/docs/figures/images/10002x.jpg stock directSource Infomine Block Caving4 Steeply sloping openings permitting caved ore to flow down raises through grizzlies to chutes on the haulage levelan undercut where the rock mass underneath the block is fractured by blastingdrawbells constructed in the midst of the undercut and lineage levelsan extraction level with drawpoints at the base of drawbells andan ore haulage system to collect, crush and transport the ore out of the mine. resistor Mining MethodsUn acheedArtificially SupportedPillar SUpported backfire S precedeingBench and Fill StopingRoom and PillarSublevel Mining yenwall MiningSublevel and Longhole pass StopingBlock and Panel CavingVCR StopingCut and Fill Stoping1.1.2 History o f Block CavingLate 19th centuryprecursor to modern block caving demonstrable in the Pewabic iron ore mine, Michigan, USAEarly 20th centurythe block caving method developed in the USA for iron ore and consequently copper mining in the western states1920sblock caving started in Canada and chilli pepperLate 1950sblock caving introduced into southern African diamond mines and then chrysotile asbestosminesLate 1960sLHD vehicles developed for underground mining1970LHDs used with block caving at El Salvador mine, Chile1981mechanised panel caving introduced in the master(a) ore at El Teniente mine, Chile1990splanning of the new genesis of block caves with larger block summit meetings in stronger orebodies (e.g. Northparkes, Palabora)2000splanning and development of super block caves under existing open pit mines (Grasberg, Chuquicamata, Bingham Canyon) and at great depth (Resolution Copper)http//www.edumine.com/xcourse/xblock101/docs/figures/images/10003x.jpgSource Infomine Block Cavi ng1.2 Management Organizational graph exploit ManagerTechnical service SuperintendentTechnical Services Superintendent tap Superintendent sympathetic ResourceLogisticsElectrical mechanic weaken outgrowthCave employment ventilating systemProjectsGeo-TechnologyGeologySurveyLong Term PlannerShort Term PlannerDesignThe organizational chart might differ establish on the requirements of a specific mine.1.2.1 Managerial Responsibilitiesmine Manager is responsible for the overall management, direction and coordination of the mine and related trading operations. Mine Managers are also intended to provide the technical leadership in the area of underground mine engineering.The focus of the Mine Manager should be on the following subjectsEnsuring underground mining activities are conducted in accordance with the Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulations and purlieual standardsComplying with all safety requirementsObserving all company policies and proceduresAssisting with the de velopment of production targetsEnsuring production targets are met or exceededDeveloping schedules, budget and ensuring these are suss outled and managed efficaciouslyMonitoring production results on a progressive basis and preparing periodic progress and variance reportsMaintaining effective working relationships with Contractors, Suppliers and Service Providers, and ensuring adherence to contractual requirementsDeveloping a sense of consecutive improvementEnsuring appropriate raising programs are in place to meet safety and production requirementsMaintaining association of accepted statutory requirements and industry best practices and ensuring compliance at all timesInterphases with other managers and superintendents as part of the management teamReviewing mining methodsImplementing optimisation programs where appropriateManaging manpower levels to achieve their performance1.3 Parameters to be considered in the beginning the implementation of cave miningTwenty five paramet ers that should be considered before the implementation of any cave mining operation are set out in Table 1. Many of the parameters are uniquely delineate by the orebody and the mining system.No.ParametersConsiderations1CavabilityRockmass metierRockmass StructureIn situ stressHydraulic radius of orebodywater system2Primary atomisationRockmass strengthGeological structuresJoint/fracture placeJoint condition ratingsStress or subsidence caving generate stress3 strikepoint spatial arrangementatomizationOverburden load and directionFriction angles of caved tingesPractical excavation sizeStability of host tockmassInduced Stress4 hurl HeightsCapitalOrebody geometryExcavation stability5LayoutFragmentaionDrawpoint spacing and sizeMethod of draw6Rockburst Potentialregional and induced stressesRockmass StrengthStructuresMining Sequence7SequenceCavabilityOrebody geometryInduced stressesGeological environmentInfluence on conterminous operationsRockburst possibleProduction requirementsWate r inflowNo.ParametersConsiderations8Undercutting SequenceRegional stressesRockmass strengthRockburst voltageRate of makeOre requirements9Induced Cave StressesRegional stresses field of undercutShape of undercutRate of undercuttingRate of draw10Drilling blareRockmass strengthPowder factorRockmass stability geted atomizationHeight of undercut11DevelopmentLayoutSequenceProductionDrilling and blasting12Excavation StabilityRockmass strengthRegional and induced stressesRockburst potentialExcavation sizeDraw heightMining Sequence13Primary SupportExcavation stabilityRockburst potentialBrow stability14Practical Excavation SizeRockmass strengthInsitu stressInduced stressCaving stress alternate blasting15Draw MethodFragmentationPractical drawpoint spacingPractical size of excavation16Draw RateFragmentationMethod of drawPercentage lessenupsSecondary intermission requirements17Drawpoint InteractionDrawpoint spacingFragmentationTime frame of working drawpointsNo.ParametersConsiderations18Dr aw mainstay StressesDraw-column heightFragmentationHomogenity of ore atomisationDraw controlHeight-to-base ratio heraldic bearing of draw19Secondary FragmentationRock- block framingDraw heightDraw rate-time dependent failureRock-block workabilityRange in atomization sizeDraw control program20Secondary BlastingSecondary atomisationDraw methodDrawpoint sizeSize of equipment and grizzly spacing21DilutionOrebody geometryFragmentation range of unpay ore and wasteGrade diffusion of pay and unpay oreMineral distribution in oreDrawpoint interactionSecondary prisonbreakDraw control22Tonnage Drawn take aim musical intervalDrawpoint spacingDilution part23Support RepairTonnage carewornPoint and column loadingSecondary blasting24ExtractionMineral distributionMethod of drawRate of drawDilution percentageOre losses25SubsidenceMajor geological structuresRockmass strengthInduced stressesDepth of miningSource LaubsherChapter Two -Production Process2.1 Block Cave Mining SystemIn a Block Cave Mine thither are four major levels that contribute to the production of the mine. The levels that book been taken into account here areExtractionUndercut haulageVentilationIn a natural progression of a block cave mine the al-Qaeda that deficiency to be built before the start of caving includesPrimary access to the production levels (ramps and shafts)Extraction level excavations standoff and Ventilation level excavations andCrushing and ore transport facilities.While most of these excavations need to be created before the start of caving operations, construction of some extraction, haulage and dissemination level drifts can be intend good in advance of actual caving operations.Each of these levels is given a brief introduction and the production process for each level are outlined from collecting selective information from different sources. The information flow in the form of a flow chart is provided for ease of understanding the process. The information flow chart provided is utilise from personal experience and its objective is to provide an impression on the production process of an underground block cave mine.2.2 Extraction LevelThe extraction level is the main production level in a block cave operation. All the ore from the block cave is drawn through draw points at the extraction level and then transferred to haulage level through a system of ore passes or a fleet of LHDs. Since this is the main production level, it is developed and supported to counter the stresses and displacements that can be expected during the action of the drawpoints at the level.The arrangement of drawpoints, drawbells and other excavations on the extraction or production level is referred to as the extraction level layout. The development of the extraction level and the drawbells creates two types of editorials. The major apex is the shaped structure or pillar above the extraction level formed between two adjacent drawpoints but separated by the extraction or production drift. The boor apex is the shaped structure or pillar formed between two adjacent drawbells on the same side of the extraction drift.The drawpoint spacing, the drawpoint width, and the blank space between the undercut and extraction levels are all designed based on the breakation expected within the block cave. The ground support installed in the excavations at the extraction level is based on the characteristics of the rock mass and the expected stress levels at different locations.2.2.1. DrawbellsThe ideal shape of the drawbell is like a bell, so that ore can flow to the drawpoint. However it is a compromise between strength and shape. The major and minor apexes moldiness have adequate strength to last out the life of the draw. It ask to be established how much mould the shape of the drawbell has on interaction. It has always been an a posteriori point that shaped drawpoints improve ore recovery as the ore should have break flow characteristics than a drawbell with vertica l faces and a large flat top major apex. The time consuming operation is creating the drawbell. The undercut technique also determines the shape of the major apex and importantly the shape of the drawbell.The draw rate from the drawbells is an important factor in that it essentialiness(prenominal) provide space for caving also it must not be similarly fast to create a large air gap and possible air-blasts. If the draw rate is too fast seismic activity volition occur. Production must be based on this value and not rely on economic factors such as short term return on investment funds that ignores long term consequences. There is also the fact that a backward draw rate provide mean improved fragmentation.2.2.2 Extraction Level Production ProcessPlanningDesignEquipment/PeopleDecision makeGround SupportDrawbellsDriftsGround SupportDevelopmentPathwaysVentilationVentilationBlastHang upsDrawpointUndercuttingSecondary BlastingOre remotionLHDsOre pass plentifulOre PassHaulage Leve lSecondary Ore passCrusher2.3 Undercut LevelThe process of undercutting creates instability at the base of the block being caved. Block cave mining is based on the principle that when a sufficiently large area of a block has been undercut by drill and blasting, the overlying block of ore bequeath start to cave under the influence of gravity. The process will continue until caving propagates through the entire block surface or to the open pit above, unless a stable shape is achieved. The economic consumption of the undercut level is therefore to remove a slice of sufficient area near the base of the block to start the caving of the ore above.The undercut level is developed at the base of the block to be caved. The caving of the block is initiated by mining an undercut area until the hydraulic radius of the excavation reaches a critical value. As the broken ore above it will collapse into the mar so created. Vertical propagation of the cave will then occur in response to the conti nued removal of broken ore through the active drawpoints. The horizontal propagation of the cave will occur as to a greater extent drawpoints are brought into operation under the undercut area.2.3.1 UndercuttingUndercutting is the most important process in cave mining. As not only is a polish off undercut necessary to induce a cave, but the design and the sequencing of the undercut is important to reduce the effects of the induced abutment stress. It is essential that the undercut is continuous and it should not be advanced is there is a possibility that pillars will be left. This rule which is often ignored owing to the conundrums in re-drilling holes, results in the leaving of pillars resulting in the collapse of large areas and consequent high ore losses. The undercut technique also determines the shape of the major apex and importantly the shape of the drawbell. Care must be taken that there is no stacking of large blocks on the major apex as this could prevent cave propagatio n.2.3.2 Undercutting proficiencysConventional The conventional undercutting sequence is to develop the drawbell and then to break the undercut into the drawbell.Henderson Technique The Henderson Mine technique of blasting the drawbell with long holes from the undercut level just ahead of blasting the undercut reduces the time interval in which vilify can occur. They have also found it necessary to delay the development of the drawbell drift until the drawbell has to be blasted.Advance Undercut The advance undercut technique means that the drawpoints and drawbells are developed after the undercut has passed over, so that the abutment stresses are located in the massive rock mass with only the production drift.2.3.3 Undercut Level Production ProcessDesignPlanningDevelopmentEquipment/PeopleDecision MakingGround SupportVentilationDriftsPathwaysUndercuttingOre RemovalHaulage LevelLHDsCrusherMuck RemovalLHDsOre PassWaste shit2.4 Haulage and Ventilation LevelThe haulage and ventilatio n levels lie on a lower floor the extraction level. They need to be developed with adequate excavations to handle the quantity of broken ore and ventilating air streams required for the designed production rates, equipment and manpower engaged within the block cave.Facilities for storing, crushing and conveying the broken ore to the mill need to be developed at the haulage level. The larger excavations required for the crushers, ore bins and conveyor transfer stations need to be located outside the geographical zone of influence of the stresses due to the block cave, and adequate ground support will need to be installed to ensure that the excavations are stable during their expected life.The excavations and levels must be placed far enough apart so that there is limited interaction between numerous excavations created to move the ore from the production level to the milling facilities at the surface.2.4.1 Haulage LevelMuch of the development of the infrastructure for a block cav e operation is completed during the pre-production stage though some haulage lines and ventilation drifts and raises may be deferred to later in the life of the block cave. Scheduling the development of haulage and ventilation drifts needs careful planning so that the required facilities are in-place well in advance of their requirement. Though there is some flexibility in the development of these levels since they are different elevations and lie below the extraction level, the preliminary layouts need to be prepared so that the flow of materials, ore and ventilating air can be integrated without interruption as the block cave progresses.2.4.2 Ventilation LevelVentilation Levels are normally developed between the haulage and the extraction levels. During the development phase air is streamed through the undercut and extraction levels to the working faces and exhausted through the raises to the ventilation level. During production, air is coursed through the extraction level and exh austed through the ventilation raises to the exhaust side of the ventilation level. supernumerary air is provided at the working areas through ventilation raises which connect to the use of goods and services of the ventilation level2.4.3 Haulage Level learning Chart scoop shovelOre RemovalHaulage LevelHaul Distance OptimizationLHDsCrusherFigure Haulage Level Information Chart2.4.4 Ventilation Level Information ChartAuxillary VentilationIntake RaiseExhaust Raise wise(p) AirExhaust AirDriftsPathwaysFans/Vent DuctsChapter Three Production authority3.1 Departments in a block cave mine involved in Production ControlDesignPlanningGeologyGeo-technologyVentilationMaintenanceCave Development/ProductionSurveyConstructionElectricalMechanicalHuman ResourceSafetyIn a Mine Environment each and every department plays a crucial role to keep the Mine running and to meet the production targets. Problems associated with these departments no matter how small they may be contribute damage in their own way to intermit the production.Production planning for block cave operations can be complex. The factors to be considered include geotechnical constraints, cave shape, draw point development sequence, draw point productivity, production block limits such as loader electrical capacity and ore pass capacity and variable shut-off grade mining costs. The nature of the problem also changes during the life of a cave from initial production skeletal system up to final closure.Overall objective for production planning should be to maximize productivity, some of the aspects of production planning includeMinimum/ maximal tonnage per periodMaximum total tonnage per draw pointRatio of tonnage from trustworthy drawpoint compared with other drawpoints.Height of draw of current draw point with respect to other drawpointsPercentage drawn for current draw point with respect to other drawpointsMaximum tonnage from selected groups of drawpoints in a period.3.2. Production Control Major Concer ns3.2.1 FragmentationRock fragmentation is the fragment size distribution of blasted rock material, in caving operations fragmentation has a bearing onDrawpoint spacingDilution entry into the draw columnDraw controlDrawpoint productivitySecondary blasting/ geological fault costsSecondary blasting damagePrimary FragmentationCaving results in uncreated fragmentation which can be defined as the component size that separates from the cave back and enters the draw column. The data to be considered for the slowness of the primary fragmentation isIn situ rock mass ratingsIntact rock strengthMean joint spacing and maximum and minimum spacingOrientation of cave frontInduced stressesSecondary FragmentationSecondary fragmentation is the reduction in size of the primary fragmentation particle as it moves down through the draw column. The processes to which particles are subjected to, determine the fragmentation size distribution in the drawpoints. The data to be considered for the calculatio n of the primary fragmentation isThe effect of fines cushioningDraw strategy and draw rateRock block strengthShape of fragmentsFrictional properties of fragmentsColumn heightFragmentation is the major factor that determines productivity from a drawpoint. Fine material will ensure high productivity.3.2.2 Draw controlDraw control is one of the major concerns that need to be optimized in order to increase productivity of the mine. Geomechanical issues related to draw control have played a dominant role in efforts to reduce stress and improve fragmentation and reduce dilution.Draw control is the practice of controlling the tonnages drawn from respective(prenominal) drawpoints with the object ofMinimising dilution and maintaining the planned ore grade.Ensuring maximum ore recovery with minimum dilution.Avoiding damaging load concentrations on the extraction horizon.Avoiding the creation of conditions that could lead to air blasts or mud-rushes.The following have to be considered for dra w control strategy in order to maximize productivity,Any factors observed during the start of caving that will influence the planned caving and drawdown processes.Control the draw from the first tonnage into the drawpoint.Define the potential tonnages and grades that will be available from each drawpoint.The draw control system must be fully operational.Confirm that the planned draw strategy is correct.The put down and analysis of the tonnages drawn, this important aspect is often not treated with the required respect.Managing the draw by following the adopted draw strategy.Define how the control is to be monitored, maintained and audited.Planning for how the draw column would behave with time.An adherence of the remaining tonnages and grade for future production scheduling and planning.Personnel must be aware of the definition of isolated drawpoint.Ensure the drawpoints are clear and correctly identified underground.There must be reporting system to record and describe why alloc ated drawpoints have not been drawn.Ensure substitute(prenominal) breakings are done effectively and efficiently.Develop standard procedure for virtually drawpoints.Draw control is what block caving is about, the reasons for and the principles of draw control must be clearly understood by all operating personnel. Preparation of orebody must be done in a sound way so that preventable problems do not hamper the draw control.3.2.3 Secondary intermissionIrrespective of the method of primary blasting employed, it may be necessary to reblast a proportion of the rock which can then be handled by the loading, hauling and crushing system.There are four types of problems that cause a need for alternate breaking,High hang-ups are where a large fragment lies across the entrance to the draw bell up to 19m above the footwall. This type of hang up is very rare though, and it is more common that this will only occur up to a distance of 5 m above the draw point floor.Rock jumble is where several ore fragments of rock smaller than two cuboid meters form an arch in a drawbell. This is found to occur especially in the troat of the drawpoint.Low hang up is a large fragment of over two cubic metres hanging in the troat or on the floor of a draw point clocking the flow of ore.Draw point oversize is any large fragment over two cubic metres on the floor of a draw point and effectively prevents loading by LHDs.Some of the techniques that are in use for subsidiary breaking are as follows,Concussion blastingDrill and blastEmulsion secondary blastingRobust hydro fracturing breaking systemThere are many products on the market today that promise effective secondary breaking of both hang-ups and boulders, including cone packs, the quick draw system, the boulder buster and the keen cone fracture technique.In order to choose a secondary breaking method with respect to productivity the following need to considered and evaluated, detonative quantitiesLabour and Equipment requirementsFragm entationSafety3.3 Significance of Production Management

Case Study on Social Identity Theory

Case sight on kindly Identity possible actionZuneirah Omar kindly Identity Theory is a genial psychological study which onlyows self- purposeion in ag separate memberships (Hogg, 1990). This lessens from the concept of social indistinguishability which is the meaning that whizz derives from their social assort as well as the fact that they are a part of that social base (Trepte, 2006). Henceforth, this essay on Social Identity hypothesis emphasises on the passs of ii students at the University of cape Town (UCT), namely Sisanda and Andrew. Their identities during their undergraduate historic period of study are delimitd and canvasd throughout the essay, incorporating the social indistinguishability element opening, by means of a description of the hypothesis using three concepts to describe the events that point out their sort memberships. Included in these concepts is the delineate pre congeriesptuousness of the theory. In order to emphasise the practice o f this key given, the identity strategies of the theory are described as well as related to the lives of the two students. Finally, together with the identity strategies are the animadversions of the strategies as well as the theory as a whole.Sisanda is a female from Kwazulu-Natal. She lived in a unpolished village with her grandm some other, following this she moved to an in chassisal settlement nearby to live with her parents. Sisanda did very well at high schoolhouse and had some resources at her disposal to service her with her school work. Throughout her studies she has aimed to maintain her Zulu identity as opposed to receiveing a western identity. Sisanda came to UCT in order to study and thitherafter have the opportunity to return home and give back to her community, besides, since she tangle unwelcome by her community after leaving to study, she decided to persevere in Cape Town and help improve communities here (Bangeni, 2005).Andrew grew up in East London and t hen moved to a black township in Cape Town. Andrew had a pack of motivation to do well in High school in order to potpourri his life for the better. Andrew was a very unsloped student, despite the lack of resources that his school offered. He wanted to finish his studies and thereafter give back to his community, however during an early stage in his studies, when he was away from home and at Residence at UCT he experienced a lot of rejection from his community. Finally, Andrew has a strong ambition to maintain his home identity (Bangeni, 2005).The events which occurred during Sisanda and Andrews cartridge clip at university that have influenced or had an influence on their identities exit be interconnected and elaborated further in this essay, by using the Social identity theory which leave al champion be described using three concepts. These include the single positions, three social principles and a central assumption (De La Rey, 2003).The person component discussed here is self-concept. This is when an private comprises of both, a personal and a social identity (De La Rey, 2003). In this essay we will focus roughlyly on Sisanda and Andrewss social identities in order to understandably identify their separate memberships, however their individual identities will be stirred on briefly.The three social principles are spatial congener pecking order, legitimacy or illegitimacy of the status hierarchy and permeability of throng boundaries and status trade protection (De La Rey, 2003). They both came from backgrounds of a visit status in semblance to the individuals backgrounds they compare themselves to at UCT. We see this when they mention that the students at UCT have a lot of wealth and they spend a lot. They both chose to maintain their individual status identities by non giving in to spend silver as easily as their colleagues do. In Andrewss eccentric person this is unadorned from the beginning when he chose not to be a part of the coadjutor theme that wasnt a part of his personal disunite and status identity, he chose not to be a part of the dour group as he says they are middle class, English individuals and they tend to compute down at less privileged individuals such as himself (Bangeni, 2005). gum olibanum demonstrating how the status hierarchy influenced his identity.Correspondingly, both Sisanda and Andrew have strong associations with their identities in relation to the linguistic processs they spoke previously, i.e. before they left home and came to UCT. The importance of speaking in their own languages, i.e. Zulu in Sisandas case and Afrikaans in Andrewss case, is emphasized. Although Sisanda maintains this throughout her studies, she only speaks English when she has to in order to avoid intercourse problems, and takes notes in Zulu, despite her proficiency in English. Andrew on the other give-up the ghost feels that English is now a major part of his identity, in assenting he is learning X hosa and Zulu (Bangeni, 2005).Legitimacy or illegitimacy of the status hierarchy refers to whether or not the hierarchy system is deemed as fair, reasonable and barely or not (Bangeni, 2005). According to Sisanda, she feels that the status hierarchy present at UCT is unjust as it puts a lot of undue pressure on herself as well as other students at the university (Bangeni, 2005). Finally, permeability of group boundaries and status security refers to the extent to which individuals are able to change their identities by move across the social boundaries (De La Rey, 2003). In both the cases, Sisanda and Andrews, there was a lack of permeability of their group boundaries. This is seen when they both feel unwelcomed by their communities as a result of the change that they had do by moving from the community to the university.The key assumption in social identity theory is called the positive(p) social identity. This states that individuals will always strive to secure the best(p) and most positive identity and self-concept for themselves. In order to determine what is considered to be the best self-concept an individual will make social comparisons to themselves and other groups. some(prenominal) Sisanda and Andrew were motivated to do well at school and achieve good marks in order to improve their lives and thus create a positive self-concept of themselves.Furtherto a greater extent, this key assumption results in the individual making use of various identity strategies in order to achieve a positive self-concept with a high status. In order achieve this positive valuation of themselves, perceived cognitive alternatives to the group situation that they are currently a part of are required. In other words if the members of a group are not aware of the cognitive alternatives that exist then they will be unable to change their situation and achieve the positive identity they are searching for. This can occur both, on a group level or an individual level, whe n a cognitive alternative is not achieved. (Taylor, 1987).On an individual level, the strategies include social mobility and intragroup comparison. Social mobility is a social system that is flexible and thus permits free movement of the individual (Taylor, 1987). Thus this is when an individual leaves a group and joins other group which provides the individual with a more than positive identity. Sisanda experiences social mobility when she comes to the conclusion that her community has spurned her and as a result she will remain in Cape Town and use her degree to empower communities in this town kind of of going back home to her original social group, in addition she tries to recreate her home identity at the university where she is accepted and thus this will improve her self-concept and sense of belonging. Andrew on the other hired hand, was also rejected by his community but he did not want to move to another group. He always wanted to maintain his home identity and this m ake his transition even more difficult, as a result he still remained a part of his group by participating n NGO Programmes in the community (Bangeni, 2005). up to now during Andrewss studies he made use of the abet dodging, which is intragroup comparison. This is when the individual compares himself or herself with other members of his or her own group (Taylor, 1987). This is seen with Andrew when he made comparisons to the other coloured individuals at the university who were of a higher class then Andrew and according to Andrew they looked down upon lower class individuals. This resulted in him avoiding this group, even though it formed part of the coloured group identity that he had belonged to (Bangeni, 2005). This however form part of the lesser postulation of the theory, which states that the intragroup comparison is less same(p)ly to result in an unfavourable or negative evaluation of the individual (Taylor, 1987).Furthermore, when Andrew joined a hot peer group which w as of a lower social status, we cannot assume that this is social mobility as the theory states that mobility requires movement from a low-status group to a higher status group (De La Rey, 2003). Thus a criticism of this theory is that even though Andrew experienced the exit from one group and entry into another group it was not social mobility, even though ultimately he had a positive identity, to summarise this criticism one could say that this theory only focuses on improving the groups identity and not the individuals. This is captured by stating that the social identity theory does not does not include the more realistic idea of an individual mobility strategy (Taylor, 1987).Comparatively, the cognitive alternatives include absorption, direct challenge, creativity and redefinition of characteristics. Absorption, which according to some theorists is referred to as assimilation, refers to the idea of trying to become a part of the predominant group (Taylor, 1987). This can be a chieved by trying to change you appearance, ways of vivification and ones behaviour in order to look or act like the members of the dominant group. In the case of Sisanda and Andrew they both share a equal change in which they act to achieve this assimilation alternative. This is with regards to their language, they both tried very hard to maintain their language identity and started of doing this very well. However in order to be a part of the dominant group and be able to communicate and prosper at the university they needed to adopt new language strategies. Sisanda says she became tolerant towards other African languages and wants to learn Sotho and Afrikaans as these are the languages that are most prevalent amongst the dominant groups in Cape Town. Despite this she still tries to maintain her Zulu identity, she takes notes in class in Zulu, and this shows clearly how she only adopts the new languages in certain settings in order to be a part of the dominant group. Andrew on the other hand initially found it very difficult to communicate I English as he was very good in Afrikaans only, however as a result of the group that Andrew spent his meter with he began to change his language. He started learning to speak Xhosa a form of slang dominant to the area and the group known as backstage language. Andrew completely changed with regards to language, as he began thinking in English and no longer Afrikaans, thus he adopted a new language in order to be a part of the dominant group (Bangeni, 2005).Direct challenge refers to the opposition of the dominant group by gainsay them (Taylor, 1987). Sisanda showed signs of this strategy when she defended her Zulu culture amongst other groups as a result of pagan stereotypes. Sisanda realized that this strategy did not work well in the case as she was going to lose her status amongst the members of the dominant group and as a result she maintained her Zulu identity on her own, and developed an identity of learning the other languages and ways of the culture, by means of social mobility as described previously (Bangeni, 2005). Andrew did not adopt this strategy in his time at university.Creativity is when one develops new ways in which they compare their group to others (Taylor, 1987). Andrew used this strategy by spending a lot of his time with individuals with both linguistic and economic disadvantage, and thus comparing himself and his group to them and as a result it created a more positive self and group concept for Andrew, instead of making a comparison to a more dominant group of greater advantage which would not help improve his self and group concept (Bangeni, 2005). Sisanda, on the other hand did not adopt this strategy.Finally, a strategy that was not adopted by both Sisanda and Andrew during their time at the university is the redefinition of characteristics. This is when the group redefines characteristics of the group that were previously evaluated as negative characteristics, i n order to evaluate them in a more positive light now (Taylor, 1987).As seen here not all strategies were used by both the students that were discussed. The reason for this is because there is a sum of strategies, but there is no concrete solution with regards to which strategy one may prefer or prioritise over another strategy. The espousal of the strategies also depends on the level of motivation by the individual and the group, as well as their motivation to adopt one strategy over another (Taylor, 1987). A further critique of this theory is with regards to the non-cognitive alternatives that were mentioned. If one cannot achieve social mobility, they will achieve intragroup comparisons. However the theory does not look at social mobility from a psychological perspective in that the individual mentally associates themselves with another group but does not physically leave the group (Taylor, 1987).Furthermore Social Identity Theory makes the assumption that everyone views the do minant group as one that would result in a positive identity, whereas this is not always the case (Hogg, 1990). This is seen throughout Sisandas story as she maintains her Zulu Identity even when it is not the dominant group.In conclusion, Sisanda and Andrew have many group identities including, their Zulu and Coloured culture, they are both students at UCT, the courses they have interpreted up, their social groups and cultural backgrounds amongst many others. The main identity that they have taken up is their language and culture identity and as time progresses their new identity as a student at UCT. They both come from less dominant groups in comparison to the groups they encounter at UCT and this results in the students adopting various identity strategies in order to create a more positive self and group concept and identity. By adopting these strategies they follow the key assumption and that is that they strive to create and maintain an identity that is of a more positive reg ard (Taylor, 1987). The strategies they adopted resulted in a change in their identity and as a result their group memberships as well individual identities were changed and new identities were formed in most cases. Finally criticisms of the theory were made, and from this we come to understand the central ideas of this theory by using examples which put it into perspective and context.2500 WordsReferencesBangeni, B., Kapp, R. (2005). Identities in transition duty period conceptions of home amongst black South African university students. African Studies Review, 48(3), 1 19.De La Rey, C. Duncan, N. (2003). A social psychological perspective. In N, Duncan. K, Ratele, Social psychology. Identities and relationships (pp. 45 66). UCT Press.Hogg, M. (1990). Social identity theory. In P. Burke, Contemporary social psychological theories (pp. 111-136). California Stanford University Press.Taylor, D. Moghaddam, F. (1987). Social identity theory. In D, Taylor. F, Moghaddam, Theories of intergroup relations international social psychological perspectives, second edition (pp. 59 84). Westport, CT Greenwood.Trepte, S. (2006). Social identity theory. In J, Bryant. P, Vorderer, psychological science of entertainment (pp. 256-262). New Jersey Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Principles of Effective Offender Intervention

Principles of Effective Offender InterventionIntroductionFrom musical mode tush in history, the handle of correcting those who were believed to be wrong in a way or a nonher was practiced. Communities be fleetd by certain morals, and whenever hotshot goes against the morals, it is believed that the somebody expertness have a caper and it is only serious to deal with the problem before it escalates. People atomic number 18 distinguishable whereas there be concourse who can change by just existence advised to do so, there are whatever who deprivation needlelike programs to change. Correcting young ones so that they can be part and parcel of the bigger confederation is a process that must be guided by dogmas. The four prescripts are meant to intervene and help the tar dealed persons to be discover people in the society.The four principles of interventionThere are four antithetic principles of intervention that are employ in making sure that about of the young law wrongdoers are helped to become better people in the society (Guevara, 2009). The four principles are more in a period because one must follow the other if better results are to be achieved. Effecting one principle in the absence of the previous might asseverate different results which might be opposite of the expectations of the community or the program. For a lot of years, the four principles have been used in many bailiwick facilities, and they have produced tremendous results.Risk principleOffenders are divided into different groups as far as risk is concerned low-risk and high-risk offenders. Low-risk offenders are offenders who do not pose a dandy threat to the community as well as to themselves. When it comes to such offenders, all that is needed is tokenish coaching or minimal intervention for them to fit back into the community. For example, an offender who has been involved in a quarreling that resulted in violence is not a high-risk offender. The reason for sta ting so is because the offender might have acted stunned of frustration but not under motivation or passion. Therefore, the watchfulness and resources needed to bring back such a person on the track are minimal. At the same time, the person is not a threat to him or her life.The second group consists of high-risk offenders. These types of offenders are not only a risk to the community but themselves. When it comes to attending to them, a lot of resources are required. The interventions used must also be in line with their necessarily. Risk principle calls for prioritization of resources in line with the risk of the offender. For example, a person who possesses a risk to a larger community cannot be treated like a person who possesses lesser risk. The methods of intervention used on a riskier person also differ in some ways (TJRC, 2016). The principle helps in addressing cases with all the seriousness they deserve.The principle is strong and reasonable. For example, a person who is used to involving him or herself in criminal activities needs a more hard-hitting intervention method. The reason for doing so is because a lesser effective method cannot help him or her. The intervention methods are not meant to punish but to change. Allowing continuous offenders back to the community with the expectations that he or she will change is not helping him or her in any way. Since he or she has proven to be risky, it is only good to make sure that more resources are used so as to make the intervention effective.Need principleNeed principle states that the needs of the offenders should be considered in any given intervention process. The need might be direct or indirect. Some people are agonistic by circumstances to engage in criminal activities. In nigh cases, they lack a thing or two, and that is why they end up doing what they do. What they lack is what is referred to as a need. The principle states that for a person not to go back to his or her darkened ways, the need must be satisfied. A person might end up being a criminal for lack of education and knowledge on certain issues. victorious that person through a punitory facility and bringing him or her back to the society only solves part of the problem. Therefore, it is cardinal to enlighten that person on the issues that he or she might not be long-familiar with so that he or she cannot go back to his or her old ways.The milieu, on the other hand, can influence one towards committing a crime. When the environment of the offender is not looked into, the offender is interpreted back to the same risks subsequently corrections, and that might not bear the expected results. For example, if a person lives in an environment where people live by the gun and earn from punishable activities, taking him or her back to such an environment is exposing him or her to risks (Edward Jennifer, 2004). The principle is effective because it tries to look for a lasting solution in the process of ma king sure that an offender gains from an intervention program. Helping people and not looking at what they lacked for them to commit a crime is dealing with the problem partially. The best way to make sure that criminals do not get back to their old ways is dealing with the causes, and that means looking at the needs and satisfying them.Treatment principleThe pr all(prenominal)ing principle emphasizes the need to look for the most effective treatment strategy. The principle concentrates much on the high-risk offenders. An offender must go through some effective treatments for him or her to be accepted back in the community. Factors to consider when it comes to treatment are the type of treatment, the interval of treatment, and the length of the treatment. A person who is of great danger to the community must be treated in a different way. Though the main reason why the offender is taken in a correctional facility is not to be punished, a high-risk offender must be treated in a way that he or she will never admire smart himself or others. The treatment must be intense and if the need calls it must take a longer period so that he or she can be ready to fit in the community later the treatment.There are different offenders, and they are motivated to engaging in criminal activities by different reasons. Some are criminals because they are failed by their brain. In such cases, the treatment must be special and different from others. Regardless of him being a high-risk offender, the person also has a mental health condition. In such a case, double maintenance is required (Guevara, 2009). The facility or the parties involved might choose to get out both psychiatric help and at the same time correctional help. By so doing, the offender gets his or her sanity back and is helped to rid of getting into trouble shortly. The principle is effective because it considers the genius of the offender. By considering the nature of the offender, it becomes easy to help a pe rson with a series of problems by knowing the best way to treat him or her.Fidelity principleFidelity principle states that the program must be run by people who follow the rule of law and whose integrity cannot be compromised (Edward Jennifer, 2004). It is important to know that the offenders need help and there is no way of doing it better than taking them through a program. The person running the program should cede the responsibility of correcting to the service providers, and he or she should not be bribed to lot favors to some of the law offenders. The principle is effective because it makes sure that any offender goes through the program and benefits from it without any shortcut.ConclusionThe four principles guide offenders towards use the most effective ways in gaining help. At the same time, they guide the service providers towards being effective and taking care of the offenders on charitable ways of doing things. Though the four principles have dwelt so much on progr ams and services, their main aim is to help the law offenders so that they can be people who can be accepted back into the community. They are in place to make sure that most humane means are used to correct the offenders. At the same time, they make sure that each offender is provided with help that is suitable to his or her behaviors.ReferencesEdward, J. Jennifer, A. (2004). Applying the principles of effective intervention to juvenilecorrectional programs. Retrieved from http//cjonline.uc.edu/resources/criminal-justice look/applying-the-principles-of-effective-intervention-to-juvenile-correctional programs/ Guevara, M. (2009). Implementing Evidence-Based Policy and Practice in Community Corrections, 2 Nd Edition. Retrieved from http//b.3cdn.net/crjustice/92d6c98633d1448ff0_cfm6iiq27.pdfThe evaluator Research Center. (2016). What Works Principles. Retrieved fromhttp//thejrc.com/wwi-principles.asp

Competition of Ports with the Panama Canal

Competition of inter feelings with the Panama canaliseStrategies for sometime(a) appearancesLen EdwardsTowards the end of next year, the Panama Canal will open a third set of locks allowing larger ships to transfer the canal. These super ships called venture-Panamax ships will before long have easier access to the manners on the east coast, reducing the travel multiplication for cargo from Asia. This has resulted in aggressive port expansion to concord these giants. some(prenominal) ports have the available inhabit for expansion to handle the influx of containers without some modifications of their operations. However, many cured ports desire an expansion although they ar limited on room for expansion. How can these cramped ports debate with larger ports in attracting change magnitude cargo volumes in the near future?The first option for little ports with limited space is utilizing an off enter kind argona cognize as a planet pole. It is interesting to note that planet terminal is only one of many terms describing the operation off-dock sorting areas in that location seems to be no consensus on the terminology resulting in a all-inclusive range of terms including dry ports, landlocked terminals, inland ports, inland hubs, inland logistics centers, and inland freight villages (Rodrigue Notteboom, n.d., para. 4). The satellite terminal uses dedicated trail swear out form the dock to a secondary sorting facility come along inland. The advantage to this form is the ability to handle the increased volume of container from Post Panamax ships at ports with limited land for storage of the containers, in effect change magnitude the ports throughput in crowded urban environments. The containers are loaded onto waiting stipulate shuttles without sorting by destination. The train then carried the containers to a secondary sorting yard where the containers undergo further transferring to other trains by destination. Additionally the satellit e terminals can service the trucking industry. Trucks deliver container to the satellite facility to be loaded on a rail car for delivery to the dock or a terminus inland. The synergy between the port and the satellite terminal creates a new type of maritime / land interface, which fundamentally results in a regionalized port (Rodrigue, n.d., para. 3). This type of operation is under the exploit of development at the carriage of Baltimore. The rail company CSX, in hopes to attract more ships to the port, is considering a satellite facility 15 miles for the port. The rail simple eye offers to deliver cheaper rates to transportation companies using the port and the devoted rail line.Another area for older ports to focus on is unexampledization of the actual infrastructure. Besides the amount of containers the port handles, focus should shift to offering narrow facilities at the ports, securing an advantage over larger ports. An example of this at the Port of Philadelphia is war ehousing. In 2011 Philadelphia completed a warehouse for storing refrigerated freight, the 686,000-squarefoot edifice, the largest refrigerated building in North America. The idea was to link the world-class produce commercialise with the premier perishables port in the United States. (OBrien, 2013, para 17). Additionally, the ports looking to compete with larger ports must look at improving the infrastructure pitiful freight off the pier in an efficient and cost-competitive manner. The Port of Miami attacked this conundrum in three ways. First, they secured funding to improve rail lines serving the port, which include the rebuilding of rail bridges linking the port to the rail yard. There are plans to construct three tracks capable of holding trains a half-mile long. Furthermore, the port invested in a new tunnel linking the port to the nearby interstate, while as well as upgrading surrounding roadways, offering the ability for trucks entering and leaving the port to avoid the congested downtown streets, the only other access to the port. The final blame of the project involved dredging the channel to a depth of 50 feet to accommodate Post-Panamax ships. With Miamis three-pronged attack tunnel, rail, and dredging the port claims it will be able to contain inroads into some of the markets that Savannah now dominates (Whitefield, 2012, para. 33). Moreover, Baltimore requires a redesign of the rail system leaving the port. The only rail tunnel leaving the port is one hundred thirty years old, lacking in the proper diameter to handle the modern double stack trains or tri-level auto racks. Without railroad redesign in Baltimore, its estimated that Maryland might even lose up to 50 percentage of its container traffic to a port like Norfolk, Va. the other East shore port able to handle the larger ships costing our region hundreds of jobs and tens of millions in economic activity and tax revenue (Sadowski, 2012, para. 8).One last resource for crowded p orts to compete besides the pervious mentioned options is entering strategic alliances with major(ip) transportation system companies via a dedicated terminal. This alliance benefits both the ports and the maritime shipping company, this relationship requires a long-term agreement. For the shipping company it secures a port in a profitable location without having to compete with other shipping companies. As for the ports, the shipping company considers the port part of their supply chain, order a majority of their ship to call upon the port even if in that location are ports closer or ports containing better facilities. For port authorities, dedicated terminals countenance the development of port facilities allowing them to push for more funding it is also a useful strategy if there is competition between port terminals (Lun, Lai, Cheng, 2010, p. 182). The Port of Philadelphia remains proactive on attracting ships to their port they have agents stationed across the world. Lik ewise, the Port of Baltimore in the late 1990s attempted to attract two major shipping companies by offering lower dock rates and upgrading facilities some the port. Unfortunately, for Baltimore the shipping companies rejected their offer. Although, this reinforces the lengths that port will go to attract a dedicated shipping company.In conclusion, with the completion of the Panama Canal upgrades in brief to be completed, the ports operating on the east coast now face a rush to prepare. The larger ports fare well in this situation, having the room for expansion and up to date infrastructure. The older ports in urban environments scramble to prepare a system to handle the increased demand. There are a few options to aid these ports, depending on the amount of funding available. or so ports like Baltimore are looking to move the sorting of containers to off-site location, depending on rail transportation to deliver the containers. On the other hand, some port authorities are improv ing the needed infrastructure to allow quick movements of rail and trucks to and from the facility. Lastly, many ports are securing deals with shipping companies to lure them to make the older ports their main stops in America. This report discussed issues with east coast ports although these strategies are not limited to that area. They are easily applied to struggling ports across the globe.ReferencesLun, Y.H., Lai, K., Cheng, T.C. (2010).Shipping and logistics management. London, England Springer.OBrien, D. (2013, Summer). daddys Homeport The Port Of Philadelphia.Catalyst Magazine. Retrieved from http//http//digital.graphcompubs.com/article/Pennsylvanias+Homeport+The+Port+Of+Philadelphia+/1445490/0/article.htmlRodrigue, J.P., Notteboom, T. (n.d.).Inland Ports/Dry Ports. Retrieved August 6, 2014, from https//people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch4en/appl4en/ch4a4en.htmlRodrigue, J.P. (n.d.).The insertion of a Satellite Terminal in Port Operations. Retrieved August9, 2014, from http //people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch4en/conc4en/agileport.htmlSadowski, J.T. (2012, October 24). The port Baltimores access to opportunity.The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved from http//articles.baltimoresun.com/2012-10-24/news/bs-ed-port-20121024_1_port-expansion-cargo-activity-intermodal-facilityWhitefield, M. (2012, November 18). Competition heats up as U.S. ports prepare for Panama Canal expansion.Miami Herald, p.para. 33. Retrieved from http//www.miamiherald.com/2012/11/18/3104323/competition-heats-up-as-us-ports.html